Federalism

Federalism

Federalism, with decentralisation, set the Political Science 5-marker in the 2026-27 sample paper (the provisions of the 1992 amendments OR what makes India federal). February 2026 had a 3-marker on how the Constitution divides powers between the Centre and the States and a statements MCQ on Panchayati Raj; the 2025 paper had a matched-pair MCQ on federal and unitary countries and a case study on local democracy. Expect 4 or 5 marks, often as a long answer or a case study.

Marks are most often lost on the three lists and residuary subjects, on the amendment rule (two-thirds of both Houses AND at least half the States), on the heads of local bodies (sarpanch, chairperson, mayor), on writing that the Election Commission of India holds panchayat elections, and on calling Hindi the national language.

Revise in 5 Minutes

Federal vs unitary

Routes: coming together (USA, Switzerland, Australia: units equal and strong); holding together (India, Spain, Belgium: Centre stronger, units may be unequal, e.g. special provisions for some Indian States).

India's lists

• Union Territories (Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Delhi): no State powers; the Centre has special powers.
• Changing the division: two-thirds of both Houses AND at least half the States. Courts settle disputes. Both levels levy taxes.
• In practice: linguistic States; no national language (Hindi official, 22 Scheduled Languages, English kept after 1965); after 1990, regional parties, coalitions and a Supreme Court check on dismissing State governments.

Local government

• Two tiers at first; the third tier strengthened in 1992 (73rd and 74th Amendments). Before 1992: State control, irregular elections, no powers or money.
• 1992: regular elections; seats and heads reserved for SC, ST, OBC; at least one-third for women; State Election Commission; States share powers and revenue.

Traps

• Local elections: State Election Commission, not the Election Commission of India.
• Hindi is not the national language.
• Women's one-third reservation applies in local bodies.
• A mayor heads a corporation (big city); a municipality (town) has a chairperson.

How to use this page: try each question on paper first, then read the answer. The marks against each step show what an examiner looks for. The 1-mark MCQs and Assertion-Reason questions are in the quiz at the end, together with questions that test how well you understand the chapter; every quiz answer comes with its explanation.

Short Answer Questions (2 and 3 Marks)

Question 1 (2 marks)

Give two reasons why decentralisation of power is useful in a large country like India.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. Many problems are best settled locally, because local people know their area's problems and where money should be spent.
2. People can take part directly in local decisions, which builds the habit of democratic participation.

Marking scheme:

1. Many problems are best settled locally, because local people know their area's problems, where money should be spent and how to manage things well. — 1 mark
2. People can take part directly in local decisions, which builds the habit of democratic participation. (Also accept: it realises the principle of local self-government.) — 1 mark

Question 2 (3 marks)

In the years after independence, some national leaders were uneasy about redrawing the boundaries of States. Explain what worried them, on what bases the new States were formed, and what the experience has shown.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. Worry: leaders feared that States based on language might break up the country, so the Centre resisted them for some time.
2. Bases: most States brought together people speaking one language; Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand recognised differences of culture, ethnicity or geography.
3. Experience: the country became more united, and administration became easier.

Marking scheme:

1. Worry: that forming States on the basis of language might lead to the break-up of the country; so the Central Government resisted linguistic States for some time. — 1 mark
2. Bases: most States were drawn so that people speaking one language lived together; some, such as Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand, were formed to recognise differences of culture, ethnicity or geography. — 1 mark
3. Experience: the country has become more united, and administration has become easier. — 1 mark

Question 3 (3 marks)

In the imaginary country of Bahudesh, most people of the province of Tolara speak Tol. Tolara wants Tol as its own official language, but the national government insists that only the national language may be used in every province's offices and courts. Using India's experience, give three reasons why Bahudesh should accept Tolara's demand.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. In India, States have their own official languages, so people deal with their government in a language they know.
2. India has no national language; besides Hindi, 21 other languages are Scheduled Languages.
3. Flexibility, like keeping English with Hindi after the 1965 protests, kept India united and helped it avoid a Sri Lanka-like conflict.

Marking scheme:

1. In India, States have their own official languages, so people can deal with their government in the language they know. — 1 mark
2. India gave no language the status of national language; besides Hindi, 21 other languages are Scheduled Languages, so many languages get respect. (Also accept: candidates may take central government exams in any Scheduled Language.) — 1 mark
3. Giving way on language, as India did when it kept English along with Hindi after the protests of 1965, kept the country united and helped it avoid a Sri Lanka-like conflict. — 1 mark

Question 4 (3 marks)

Explain three reasons why the States of India enjoy more real autonomy today than they did in the first decades after 1950.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. After 1990, regional parties came to power in many States.
2. With no single party winning a majority in the Lok Sabha, national parties had to form coalitions with regional parties, so the autonomy of the States came to be respected.
3. A Supreme Court judgement made it hard for the Centre to dismiss State governments arbitrarily.

Marking scheme:

1. After 1990, regional political parties rose to power in many States. — 1 mark
2. The era of coalition governments began at the Centre: with no single party winning a majority in the Lok Sabha, national parties had to ally with regional parties, which brought respect for the autonomy of State governments. — 1 mark
3. The Supreme Court has ruled in a way that stops the Centre from removing State governments whenever it likes. — 1 mark

Question 5 (2 marks)

What is a panchayat samiti, and how are its members chosen?

Answer.

Model answer:

1. A panchayat samiti is formed by grouping a few gram panchayats together; it is also called a block or mandal.
2. Its members are elected by all the panchayat members in that area.

Marking scheme:

1. A few gram panchayats are grouped together to form a panchayat samiti, also called a block or mandal. — 1 mark
2. Its members are elected by all the panchayat members in that area. — 1 mark

Question 6 (2 marks)

How is a municipal corporation different from a municipality? Give two differences.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. Municipalities are set up in towns and smaller cities, while municipal corporations are set up in big cities.
2. A municipality is headed by the municipal chairperson; a municipal corporation is headed by the mayor.

Marking scheme:

1. Area: municipalities are set up in towns and smaller cities; municipal corporations are set up in big cities. — 1 mark
2. Head: the political head of a municipality is the municipal chairperson; the political head of a municipal corporation is the mayor. — 1 mark

Question 7 (2 marks)

In a federation, the same citizens are governed by two levels of government. How is the work divided between the two levels? Give one example for each.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. The government for the whole country looks after subjects of common national interest, such as foreign affairs.
2. State governments look after the day-to-day running of their States, such as police.

Marking scheme:

1. The government for the whole country looks after subjects of common national interest, such as foreign affairs. — 1 mark
2. The governments of the States look after much of the day-to-day running of their States, such as police. (Accept any correct examples.) — 1 mark

Question 8 (3 marks)

Federalism has two aims. Explain them, and explain why the levels of government need to trust each other for federalism to work.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. The first aim is to safeguard and promote the unity of the country.
2. The second is to accommodate regional diversity, so that regions can run their own affairs.
3. The levels must trust each other and agree to live together; if one tries to take over the other's powers, the arrangement breaks down.

Marking scheme:

1. First aim: to safeguard and promote the unity of the country. — 1 mark
2. Second aim: to accommodate regional diversity, so that different regions can run their own affairs. — 1 mark
3. Mutual trust and agreement to live together are needed; if one level tries to take over the other's powers, the arrangement breaks down. — 1 mark

Question 9 (2 marks)

Local governments existed in India before 1992, but they could do little. Give two reasons why they were weak.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. They were under the direct control of State governments, and their elections were often not held regularly.
2. They had no powers or resources of their own.

Marking scheme:

1. They were under the direct control of the State governments, and elections to them were often not held regularly. — 1 mark
2. They had no powers or resources of their own. — 1 mark

Long Answer and Case-Based Questions

Question 10 (5 marks)

Read the five situations given below. For each, state which level of government has the power to act, or who settles the matter, and give a reason.

(a) A State government wants to recruit more police constables and open new police stations.

(b) A State government wants to print its own currency notes.

(c) A new subject, which did not exist when the Constitution was made and is in none of the three lists, needs a law.

(d) The Union Government wants to move agriculture from the State List to the Union List.

(e) A State says that a new Union law has stepped into a subject on the State List.

Answer.

Model answer:

(a) The State government, because police is on the State List.

(b) Only the Union Government, because currency is on the Union List and the country needs one policy on it.

(c) The Union Government, because a subject in no list is a residuary subject, like computer software.

(d) The Union cannot do this alone. The change needs a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament and ratification by at least half the States.

(e) The High Courts and the Supreme Court settle such disputes about the division of powers.

Marking scheme:

1. (a) The State government: police is on the State List, a subject of State and local importance. — 1 mark
2. (b) Only the Union Government: currency is on the Union List, since the whole country needs one policy on it. — 1 mark
3. (c) The Union Government: subjects in none of the lists are residuary subjects, on which the Union makes laws (such as computer software). — 1 mark
4. (d) The Union cannot do this alone: the change needs a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament and ratification by the legislatures of at least half the States. — 1 mark
5. (e) The courts: disputes about the division of powers go to the High Courts and the Supreme Court, which act as umpire. — 1 mark

OR

The imaginary country of Ekraj has always had a unitary government. Its leaders now want to make it a federation. Explain five changes Ekraj must make to its system of government.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. Set up at least two levels of government, national and provincial, each with powers of its own.
2. Write each level's subjects of law, taxes and administration into the constitution, so the Centre can no longer order the provinces on their subjects.
3. Give the national government matters of common national interest and the provinces the day-to-day running of their areas.
4. Let each level be elected by, and answer to, the people separately.
5. Let independent courts interpret the constitution and settle disputes between the levels.

Marking scheme:

1. Set up at least two levels of government, a national government and provincial governments, each with powers of its own. — 1 mark
2. Write each level's subjects of law, taxation and administration into the constitution, so that the Centre can no longer give orders to the provinces on their subjects. — 1 mark
3. Give the national government subjects of common national interest, and the provinces the day-to-day running of their areas. — 1 mark
4. Let each level be elected by, and answerable to, the people separately, not to the other level. — 1 mark
5. Let independent courts interpret the constitution and settle disputes between the levels. (Also accept: separate sources of revenue for each level; basic changes only with the consent of both levels.) — 1 mark

Question 11 (5 marks)

Assess the system of local self-government created by the 1992 amendments. Explain three ways in which it has strengthened democracy in India and two ways in which it still falls short.

Answer.

Model answer:

Strengths:

1. Local government got constitutional status, which deepened democracy. With lakhs of elected members, it is the largest experiment in democracy anywhere.
2. At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women, which has increased their representation and voice.
3. Seats are reserved for SC, ST and OBC, so these groups share in local decisions.

Shortfalls:

4. Most State governments have not handed over significant powers to local bodies.
5. Local bodies do not get adequate resources, so they cannot do much on their own.

Marking scheme:

1. Local government got constitutional status, which deepened democracy; with lakhs of elected representatives, it is the largest experiment in democracy anywhere. — 1 mark
2. At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women, which has increased their representation and voice in politics. — 1 mark
3. Seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes, so these groups share in local decisions. — 1 mark
4. Shortfall: most State governments have not transferred significant powers to local governments. — 1 mark
5. Shortfall: local governments have not been given adequate resources. (Also accept: gram sabhas are not held regularly.) — 1 mark

OR

The imaginary State of Harigarh has not held panchayat elections for eight years. When the elections are finally held, officials of the State government run them. The panchayats get no funds and no powers of their own. The Chief Minister says, 'Our villages are not ready to govern themselves.' Explain three provisions of the 1992 amendments that Harigarh is not following, and give two reasons why the Chief Minister's view is wrong.

Answer.

Model answer:

1. Elections to local bodies must be held regularly; eight years without them breaks this rule.
2. Panchayat elections must be conducted by an independent State Election Commission, not by State officials.
3. The State must share some powers and revenue with local bodies.
4. The view is wrong because village people know their own problems best and know where money should be spent.
5. Local government lets people take part directly in decisions; this builds the habit of democratic participation, which is how villages become 'ready'.

Marking scheme:

1. It is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies; eight years without elections breaks this. — 1 mark
2. Panchayat and municipal elections must be conducted by an independent State Election Commission, not by officials of the State government. — 1 mark
3. State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies. — 1 mark
4. Village people know their own problems best and know where money should be spent and how to manage things efficiently. — 1 mark
5. Local government lets people take part directly in decisions, which builds the habit of democratic participation; this is how people become 'ready'. — 1 mark

Question 12 (4 marks)

Read the source given below and answer the questions that follow.

The Assembly at Mahadesh

When the imaginary country of Mahadesh became free, it was already one large country with dozens of language groups, from the desert tribes of the west to the rice farmers of the eastern deltas. Its constitution makers did not have to persuade anyone to join. Their worry was a different one: how could so many regions stay inside one country and still run their own affairs?

They decided to divide the power of the national government between it and new provincial governments. The national government could create new provinces or change their borders. Any subject left out of the lists would belong to it, and where both levels could make laws, its law would prevail. Two border provinces, each with a long history and customs of its own, were given some special powers that the other provinces did not get. "We are not uniting separate countries," one member told the assembly. "We are keeping one country together by sharing power within it."

(a) What kind of federation did Mahadesh form? Give a reason from the source. (1 mark)

Answer.

Model answer:

A 'holding together' federation: one large country divided its power between the national government and the provinces.

Marking scheme:

1. A 'holding together' federation (½): one large country divided its power between the national government and the provinces (½). — 1 mark

(b) Give one feature from the source which shows that the national government of Mahadesh is stronger than its provinces. (1 mark)

Answer.

Model answer:

It can create new provinces or change their borders.

Marking scheme:

1. Any one: it can create provinces or change their borders; subjects left out of the lists belong to it; its law prevails where both levels can make laws. — 1 mark

(c) Why do you think the two border provinces were given special powers? Give two reasons. (2 marks)

Answer.

Model answer:

1. To protect their own history, customs and way of life, so that their people feel secure.
2. To keep them willingly inside the country; a holding-together federation may give some units special powers, as India does for some States.

Marking scheme:

1. To protect their own history, customs and way of life, so that their people feel secure. — 1 mark
2. To keep them willingly inside the country: a holding-together federation may give some units special powers to accommodate diversity, as India does with special provisions for some States. (Accept any sensible reason.) — 1 mark

Question 13 (4 marks)

Read the source given below and answer the questions that follow.

A Sunday under the Neem Tree

More than four hundred voters of the imaginary village of Bhadrapur gathered under the big neem tree last Sunday for the meeting of the gram sabha. The sarpanch, Kamla Devi, read out the gram panchayat's plans for the coming year: a covered drain along the main lane, repairs to the school roof and a new hand pump near the weavers' colony.

Several voters wanted to know why the road built last year had cracked within months. The panch of Ward 4 promised to put the contractor's bills up on the panchayat notice board. After two hours of discussion, the sabha approved the budget, but only after cutting the money set aside for a new panchayat office and adding more for the hand pump.

"This is the one meeting where I can question the people I elected," said Ramdin, a farmer. "In the Assembly election, I am one voice among lakhs."

(a) Who are the members of a gram sabha? (1 mark)

Answer.

Model answer:

All the voters of the village are its members.

Marking scheme:

1. All the voters of the village. — 1 mark

(b) Who is the head of the gram panchayat of Bhadrapur, and how is that person chosen? (1 mark)

Answer.

Model answer:

The sarpanch, Kamla Devi. The sarpanch is directly elected by all the adult voters of the village.

Marking scheme:

1. The sarpanch, Kamla Devi (½); the sarpanch is directly elected by all the adult voters of the village (½). — 1 mark

(c) Explain two ways in which the gram sabha kept a check on the gram panchayat, as shown in the source. (2 marks)

Answer.

Model answer:

1. It approved the budget only after changing it: it cut money for a new office and added money for the hand pump.
2. It questioned the panchayat about the cracked road and got a promise that the contractor's bills would be made public.

Marking scheme:

1. It approved the panchayat's budget only after changing it: it cut the money for a new office and added money for the hand pump. — 1 mark
2. It reviewed the panchayat's work by questioning it about the cracked road, and got a promise that the contractor's bills would be made public. — 1 mark