Small-scale Industries Predominate
While factory industries grew after the war, large industries formed only a small segment of the economy. About 67 per cent of large industries (1911) were in Bengal and Bombay, and only a small share of the industrial workforce was in registered factories — 5 per cent in 1911 and 10 per cent in 1931. The rest worked in small workshops and household units in alleys and bylanes, invisible to the passer-by.
In fact, handicraft production expanded in the twentieth century. Handloom cloth production almost trebled between 1900 and 1940. This was partly due to technological change: by the second decade of the century weavers used the fly shuttle, which raised productivity, speeded up production and reduced labour demand. By 1941, over 35 per cent of handlooms had fly shuttles (70–80 per cent in Travancore, Madras, Mysore, Cochin and Bengal).
Which Weavers Survived
Some weavers were better placed to survive competition with the mills. Weavers who produced coarse cloth for the poor faced violently fluctuating demand — in famines the rural poor could not buy cloth. But the demand for the finer varieties bought by the well-to-do was more stable: 'famines did not affect the sale of Banarasi or Baluchari saris'. Moreover, mills could not imitate specialised weaves — saris with woven borders and the famous lungis and handkerchiefs of Madras could not be easily displaced.
Weavers who continued to expand production did not necessarily prosper — they lived hard lives and worked long hours, with the whole family engaged. But they were not simply remnants of the past; their life and labour was integral to the process of industrialisation.
The Market for Goods: Advertisements
When new products are made, people have to be persuaded to buy them — one important way is through advertisements, which make products appear desirable and necessary and shape a new consumer culture.
When Manchester industrialists sold cloth in India, they put labels on the cloth bundles. The label made the name and place of manufacture familiar and was a mark of quality — 'MADE IN MANCHESTER' was meant to inspire confidence. Labels also carried images of Indian gods and goddesses (Krishna, Saraswati, Lakshmi), as if giving divine approval and making foreign goods appear familiar. By the late nineteenth century, manufacturers printed calendars to popularise products, hung even in the homes of those who could not read. Figures of emperors and nawabs were also used to build respect for a product. When Indian manufacturers advertised, the swadeshi message was clear: 'if you care for the nation, buy products made by Indians.'
Questions and Answers
Q1. Show that small-scale production predominated in colonial India. Ans. Large industries were only a small segment — mostly (about 67 per cent) in Bengal and Bombay — and only 5 per cent (1911) and 10 per cent (1931) of the industrial workforce was in registered factories. Most people worked in small workshops and household units, and handloom cloth production actually trebled between 1900 and 1940.
Q2. How did the fly shuttle help handloom weavers? Ans. The fly shuttle was a mechanical device that let weavers operate larger looms and weave wider cloth, raising productivity, speeding up production and reducing labour demand. By 1941, over 35 per cent of Indian handlooms had fly shuttles.
Questions and Answers (continued)
Q3. Why could some weavers survive the competition from mills? Ans. Weavers of finer varieties (like Banarasi and Baluchari saris) survived because the demand of the well-to-do was stable even in famines, and because mills could not imitate specialised weaves — saris with woven borders and the lungis of Madras could not be displaced by mill cloth.
Q4. How did advertisements help create a market for goods? Ans. Advertisements made products appear desirable and necessary and shaped a new consumer culture. Manchester used labels ('MADE IN MANCHESTER') and images of Indian gods to win trust; manufacturers printed calendars; and Indian producers used the swadeshi message to sell their goods.
Questions and Answers (continued)
Q5. Why were images of Indian gods and goddesses used on cloth labels? Ans. Images of gods like Krishna and Saraswati gave the goods a sense of divine approval and made the manufacture from a foreign land appear familiar and acceptable to Indian buyers, encouraging them to buy.