The Limits of Civil Disobedience: Dalits

Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of swaraj. One such group was the nation's 'untouchables', who from the 1930s had begun to call themselves dalit (oppressed). For long the Congress had ignored the dalits, fearing to offend the conservative high-caste sanatanis. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated. He called the untouchables harijan ('children of God'), organised satyagraha for their entry into temples and access to wells, tanks and roads, and himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of sweepers.

Many dalit leaders wanted a different political solution — reserved seats and separate electorates. Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates. When the British conceded, Gandhi began a fast unto death, believing separate electorates would slow down dalit integration. Ambedkar accepted Gandhi's position, resulting in the Poona Pact of September 1932, which gave the Depressed Classes reserved seats in legislative councils, voted in by the general electorate.

The Limits of Civil Disobedience: Muslims

Some Muslim political organisations were also lukewarm towards the Civil Disobedience Movement. After the decline of the Non-Cooperation–Khilafat Movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress, which from the mid-1920s appeared more associated with Hindu nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. Relations worsened, with communal clashes and riots deepening the distance between the communities.

Efforts to renegotiate a Congress–League alliance faltered over the question of representation. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up separate electorates if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces, but hope of a settlement disappeared at the All Parties Conference (1928). Many Muslim leaders feared their culture and identity would be submerged under a Hindu majority — in 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal stressed the need for separate electorates as a safeguard.

The Sense of Collective Belonging

Nationalism spreads when people begin to feel part of the same nation. This sense of collective belonging came partly through united struggles, but also through cultural processes — history and fiction, folklore and songs, prints and symbols.

  • Bharat Mata: In the twentieth century, India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata, first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, who wrote 'Vande Mataram' in the 1870s (later included in his novel Anandamath). Abanindranath Tagore painted the famous image of Bharat Mata (1905) as a calm, divine, ascetic figure.
  • Folklore: Nationalists revived folk tales and songs to discover the national identity — Rabindranath Tagore in Bengal and Natesa Sastri in Madras (who collected Tamil folklore).
  • Flags: During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour (red, green and yellow) flag with eight lotuses and a crescent moon was designed. By 1921 Gandhi had designed the Swaraj flag — a tricolour (red, green and white) with a spinning wheel at the centre.
  • Reinterpreting history: Indians wrote of India's glorious past to instil pride, though glorifying a Hindu past sometimes left other communities feeling left out.

Questions and Answers

Q1. What was the Poona Pact of September 1932? Ans. The Poona Pact was an agreement between Dr B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi. Ambedkar gave up the demand for separate electorates for dalits; in return, the Depressed Classes (later the Scheduled Castes) were given reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, to be voted in by the general electorate.

Q2. Why were some Muslim organisations lukewarm towards the Civil Disobedience Movement? Ans. After the decline of the Khilafat movement, many Muslims felt alienated from the Congress, which seemed close to Hindu groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. Amid communal riots and unresolved questions of representation, they feared their culture and identity would be submerged under a Hindu majority.

Questions and Answers (continued)

Q3. How was the image of Bharat Mata created and popularised? Ans. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay first created the idea, writing 'Vande Mataram' in the 1870s (later in Anandamath). Abanindranath Tagore painted the famous Bharat Mata (1905) as a calm, divine, ascetic figure. Devotion to this mother figure came to be seen as evidence of nationalism.

Q4. Describe the Swaraj flag designed by Gandhi in 1921. Ans. The Swaraj flag (1921) was a tricolour of red, green and white with a spinning wheel (charkha) in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying it during marches became a symbol of defiance.

Questions and Answers (continued)

Q5. How did the reinterpretation of history help build nationalism, and what problem did it create? Ans. Indians wrote of India's glorious ancient past — in art, science, religion and culture — to instil pride and counter the British view of Indians as backward. But when the past glorified was mainly Hindu, people of other communities felt left out, creating a problem for national unity.