The Strange Case of Britain

In Britain the nation-state was not the result of a sudden revolution but of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British nation before the eighteenth century; the primary identities of the people were ethnic — English, Welsh, Scot or Irish — each with its own culture and traditions.

As the English nation grew in wealth and power, it extended its influence over the others. The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688, was the instrument through which a nation-state with England at its centre was forged. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland created the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain', with the parliament dominated by English members. Scotland's culture was suppressed — the Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak Gaelic or wear their national dress. Ireland, divided between Catholics and Protestants, was incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801 after the failed revolt of Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen (1798). The symbols of the new Britain — the Union Jack, the national anthem and the English language — were promoted, and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners.

Visualising the Nation — Allegories

How does one give a face to a nation? Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries personified the nation — representing a country as a female figure. This female form did not stand for any real woman; it gave the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form, becoming an allegory of the nation.

  • In France, the nation was personified as Marianne, a popular Christian name underlining the idea of a people's nation. Her characteristics — the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade — were drawn from Liberty and the Republic. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares and her image marked on coins and stamps.
  • In Germany, Germania became the allegory of the nation. She wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Common symbols included: broken chains (being freed), breastplate with eagle (the German empire — strength), sword (readiness to fight), olive branch around the sword (willingness to make peace), the black, red and gold tricolour (the liberal-nationalist flag of 1848), and rays of the rising sun (a new era).

Nationalism and Imperialism

By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, nationalism no longer kept its idealistic liberal-democratic character; it became a narrow creed with limited ends. Nationalist groups grew intolerant of each other and ready to go to war, and the major European powers manipulated the nationalist aspirations of subject peoples for their own imperialist aims.

The most serious source of tension after 1871 was the region called the Balkans — comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro — whose peoples were broadly known as the Slavs. A large part was under the Ottoman Empire. As Ottoman power disintegrated and romantic nationalism spread, the Balkan peoples claimed independence based on nationality. The Balkan states were jealous of each other, and the region became the scene of big-power rivalry among Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary — each keen to extend its control. This led to a series of wars and finally the First World War.

Questions and Answers

Q1. How was the British nation formed? Ans. The British nation was formed through a long process, not a revolution. As the English nation grew in power, it extended its influence over the Welsh, Scots and Irish. The Act of Union of 1707 united England and Scotland as the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain', and Ireland was incorporated in 1801. English culture and symbols (the Union Jack, the anthem, the English language) were promoted while the older nations became subordinate partners.

Q2. What is an allegory of the nation? Give two examples. Ans. An allegory gives the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form, usually as a female figure. Marianne personified France (with the red cap, tricolour and cockade), and Germania personified Germany (wearing a crown of oak leaves symbolising heroism).

Questions and Answers (continued)

Q3. Why did the Balkans become a region of conflict? Ans. The Balkans had great ethnic and geographical variety and much of it was under the declining Ottoman Empire. As romantic nationalism spread, its peoples claimed independence based on nationality. The Balkan states were jealous of each other, and the region became the scene of big-power rivalry among Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary, leading to wars and finally the First World War.

Q4. How did the character of nationalism change by the end of the nineteenth century? Ans. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, nationalism lost its liberal-democratic idealism and became a narrow, intolerant creed. Nationalist groups were ready to go to war, and the great powers used nationalist aspirations to serve their imperialist aims.

Questions and Answers (continued)

Q5. What do the following symbols of Germania represent: broken chains, crown of oak leaves, and sword? Ans. Broken chains represent being freed; the crown of oak leaves represents heroism; and the sword represents readiness to fight (an olive branch around it would mean willingness to make peace).