The July Revolution and Belgium
As conservative regimes tried to consolidate power, liberalism and nationalism came to be associated with revolution in many regions — the Italian and German states, the Ottoman provinces, Ireland and Poland. These revolutions were led by liberal-nationalists from the educated middle class.
The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings, restored during the conservative reaction, were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. Metternich once remarked, 'When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.' The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
The Greek War of Independence
An event that mobilised nationalist feeling across Europe was the Greek war of independence. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism sparked a struggle for independence among the Greeks that began in 1821.
Greek nationalists were supported by other Greeks living in exile and by many West Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists hailed Greece as the cradle of European civilisation. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and went to fight, dying of fever in 1824. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Nationalism did not develop only through wars. Culture — art, poetry, stories and music — played an important role in shaping the idea of the nation. Romanticism, a cultural movement, criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and shared cultural heritage.
The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) claimed that true German culture was to be found among the common people — das volk — and that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was expressed through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances. The Grimm Brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm) collected folktales, publishing their first collection in 1812, and compiled a 33-volume German dictionary.
Language as a Weapon: Poland
The emphasis on vernacular language and folklore helped carry the nationalist message to largely illiterate audiences. This was especially so in Poland, which had been partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by Russia, Prussia and Austria. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feeling was kept alive through music and language — Karol Kurpinski turned folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian imposed. Following the crushing of an armed rebellion in 1831, many clergy began to use Polish for Church gatherings and religious instruction. Many priests and bishops were jailed or sent to Siberia for refusing to preach in Russian, and the use of Polish became a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.
Questions and Answers
Q1. What happened in the July Revolution of 1830 in France? Ans. The Bourbon kings were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe. The July Revolution also sparked an uprising in Brussels that led to Belgium breaking away from the Netherlands.
Q2. Trace briefly the Greek war of independence. Ans. Greece had been under the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. A struggle for independence began in 1821, supported by exiled Greeks and West Europeans (like the poet Lord Byron, who died in 1824). The Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 finally recognised Greece as independent.
Questions and Answers (continued)
Q3. How did culture and Romanticism help shape national feeling? Ans. Romanticism turned away from reason and science towards emotions and a shared cultural heritage. Through art, poetry, folk songs and folk tales, Romantics like Herder (das volk, volksgeist) and the Grimm Brothers sought to express the true spirit of the nation and build a sense of common cultural identity.
Q4. How was language used as a weapon of national resistance in Poland? Ans. After Russia forced Polish out of schools, the clergy used Polish for Church gatherings and religious instruction. Many priests and bishops were jailed or sent to Siberia for refusing to preach in Russian, so the use of Polish became a symbol of the struggle against Russian rule.