Chapter Summary

This section is a concise recap of all of Chapter 1 — The Rise of Nationalism in Europe. Use it for last-minute revision before the Board examination.

In the nineteenth century, nationalism transformed Europe, replacing multi-national dynastic empires with nation-states. Frédéric Sorrieu's 1848 prints imagined a world of nations, and the French Revolution of 1789 gave the first clear expression of nationalism — transferring sovereignty to the people and forging identity through the tricolour, la patrie, le citoyen, the National Assembly and a centralised administration.

Napoleon, Liberalism and Conservatism

  • Napoleonic Code (1804): abolished birth privileges, established equality before the law and the right to property, ended feudalism and serfdom — welcomed at first, then resented for taxation, censorship and conscription.
  • Liberal nationalism: individual freedom, equality before the law, government by consent, constitution, private property (but limited suffrage; women reduced to minors). Economic liberalism then zollverein (1834), customs union of Prussia, currencies cut from 30+ to 2.
  • Conservatism after 1815: preserve monarchy, Church, hierarchy, property, family. Congress of Vienna (1815) hosted by Metternich; Treaty of Vienna restored the Bourbons and set up buffer states; censorship.
  • Revolutionaries: secret societies; Mazzini (Young Italy, Young Europe) — 'most dangerous enemy of our social order'.

The Age of Revolutions and 1848

  • 1830 July Revolution (France): Bourbon overthrown, Louis Philippe constitutional monarch; Belgium breaks from the Netherlands.
  • Greek war of independence (1821): Lord Byron; Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognises Greece.
  • Romanticism: Herder (das volk, volksgeist), Grimm Brothers (folktales, 1812); Poland — language and music as resistance (Kurpinski; 1831 rebellion).
  • Hunger & 1848: hardship of the 1830s; 1848 food shortages force Louis Philippe out; suffrage to males above 21; Silesian weavers (1845).
  • Frankfurt Parliament (18 May 1848): Church of St Paul; crown offered to and refused by Friedrich Wilhelm IV; women admitted only as observers; assembly disbanded. Later, serfdom abolished; Hungary autonomy (1867).

Unification, Britain and Imperialism

  • Germany: Prussia + Bismarck; three wars (Austria, Denmark, France); 18 Jan 1871 — William I German Emperor at Versailles.
  • Italy: seven states; Sardinia-Piedmont; Mazzini (Young Italy); Cavour (France alliance, defeats Austria 1859); Garibaldi (Red Shirts, Expedition of the Thousand, 1860); 1861 Victor Emmanuel II king; 1870 Rome joined.
  • Britain: long process; Act of Union 1707 (England + Scotland); Ireland 1801; symbols — Union Jack, anthem, English language.
  • Allegories: Marianne (France — red cap, tricolour), Germania (crown of oak leaves = heroism); broken chains = freed, sword = readiness to fight.
  • Nationalism then imperialism: after 1871 a narrow creed; the Balkans (Slavs, declining Ottomans) + big-power rivalry then the First World War.

Quick Revision — Must-Know Facts

  • French Revolution 1789 = first expression of nationalism. Napoleonic Code = 1804.
  • Zollverein = 1834 (Prussia); Congress of Vienna = 1815 (Metternich).
  • Mazzini then Young Italy & Young Europe; Bismarck then Germany; Cavour & Garibaldi then Italy.
  • Greek independence: struggle 1821, Treaty of Constantinople 1832.
  • German Empire proclaimed 18 Jan 1871 at Versailles (Kaiser William I).
  • Victor Emmanuel II king of united Italy = 1861.
  • Marianne = France; Germania = Germany (oak leaves = heroism).
  • Balkans = most serious tension after 1871 then First World War.

Quick Revision — Commonly Confused Points

  • Liberalism (freedom, equality before law, constitution) vs Conservatism (preserve monarchy, Church, hierarchy).
  • Marianne (France) vs Germania (Germany).
  • Cavour (diplomacy) vs Garibaldi (armed Red Shirts) vs Mazzini (ideas, Young Italy).
  • Act of Union 1707 (England–Scotland) vs Ireland incorporated 1801.
  • Zollverein 1834 (customs union) vs Congress of Vienna 1815 (conservative settlement).
  • 1830 July Revolution (Louis Philippe in) vs 1848 (Louis Philippe out, Republic).