Germany — Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?
After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from democracy and revolution; it was increasingly mobilised by conservatives for state power. The liberal attempt of 1848 to unite Germany had been repressed by the monarchy and military, backed by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took the leadership of national unification.
Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process, carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years — with Austria, Denmark and France — ended in Prussian victory and completed unification. On 18 January 1871, the Prussian king William I was proclaimed German Emperor (Kaiser) in a ceremony in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The new German state emphasised modernising the currency, banking, and the legal and judicial systems.
Italy Unified
Like Germany, Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. In the mid-nineteenth century Italy was divided into seven states, of which only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under the Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope, and the south was under the Bourbon kings of Spain. Even the Italian language had many regional forms.
During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought a unitary Italian Republic and formed Young Italy, but the uprisings of 1831 and 1848 failed. The task then fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II. Its Chief Minister Cavour — who spoke French better than Italian — engineered a diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces in 1859.
Garibaldi and the Completion of Italian Unity
Alongside the regular troops, armed volunteers under Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the struggle. In 1860, Garibaldi led the famous Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, winning the support of local peasants and driving out the Spanish rulers. His volunteers, growing to about 30,000, were known as the Red Shirts.
In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of a united Italy. Much of the population — with very high rates of illiteracy — remained unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology; the peasants who had supported Garibaldi had never heard of Italia and believed 'La Talia' was Victor Emmanuel's wife! In 1870, when France withdrew its troops from Rome during its war with Prussia, the Papal States were finally joined to Italy.
Questions and Answers
Q1. Who was the architect of German unification and how was it achieved? Ans. Otto von Bismarck, the chief minister of Prussia, was the architect. Using the Prussian army and bureaucracy, he fought three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France, all ending in Prussian victory. On 18 January 1871, William I was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles.
Q2. Into how many states was Italy divided in the mid-nineteenth century, and who ruled them? Ans. Italy was divided into seven states. Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house; the north was under the Austrian Habsburgs, the centre under the Pope, and the south under the Bourbon kings of Spain.
Questions and Answers (continued)
Q3. What was the role of Cavour in the unification of Italy? Ans. Cavour, the Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, led the unification movement. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrian forces in 1859, an essential step towards unifying the Italian states.
Q4. Who was Giuseppe Garibaldi and what was the Expedition of the Thousand? Ans. Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian freedom fighter who led armed volunteers, the Red Shirts. In 1860 he led the Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, winning peasant support and driving out the Spanish rulers, helping unite Italy under Victor Emmanuel II in 1861.
Questions and Answers (continued)
Q5. Why is it said that after 1848 nationalism was taken over by the conservatives? Ans. Because the liberal-democratic attempts of 1848 were repressed, and unification was then achieved by conservative leaders and states — Bismarck in Prussia and Cavour in Sardinia-Piedmont — using the army and diplomacy rather than popular revolution, to promote state power.